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Biological and Medical Scientists
Significant
Points
A Ph.D. degree usually is required for
independent research, but a master's degree is sufficient
for some jobs in applied research or product development;
a bachelor's degree is adequate for some nonresearch
jobs.
Medical scientist jobs require a Ph.D. degree in a biological
science, but some jobs need a medical degree.
Doctoral degree holders face considerable competition
for independent research positions; holders of bachelor's
or master's degrees in biological science can expect
better opportunities in nonresearch positions.
Nature of the Work
Biological and medical scientists study
living organisms and their relationship to their environment.
They research problems dealing with life processes.
Most specialize in some area of biology such as zoology
(the study of animals) or microbiology (the study of
microscopic organisms).
Many biological scientists and virtually
all medical scientists work in research and development.
Some conduct basic research to advance knowledge of
living organisms, including viruses, bacteria, and other
infectious agents. Past research has resulted in the
development of vaccines, medicines, and treatments for
cancer and other diseases. Basic biological and medical
research continues to provide the building blocks necessary
to develop solutions to human health problems, and to
preserve and repair the natural environment. Biological
and medical scientists mostly work independently in
private industry, university, or government laboratories,
often exploring new areas of research or expanding on
specialized research started in graduate school. Those
who are not wage and salary workers in private industry
typically submit grant proposals to obtain funding for
their projects. Colleges and universities, private industry,
and Federal Government agencies, such as the National
Institutes of Health and the National Science Foundation,
contribute to the support of scientists whose research
proposals are determined to be financially feasible
and have the potential to advance new ideas or processes.
Biological and medical scientists who
work in applied research or product development use
knowledge provided by basic research to develop new
drugs and medical treatments, increase crop yields,
and protect and clean up the environment. They usually
have less autonomy than basic researchers to choose
the emphasis of their research, relying instead on market-driven
directions based on the firm's products and goals. Biological
and medical scientists doing applied research and product
development in private industry may be required to express
their research plans or results to nonscientists who
are in a position to veto or approve their ideas, and
they must understand the business impact of their work.
Scientists increasingly are working as part of teams,
interacting with engineers, scientists of other disciplines,
business managers, and technicians. Some biological
and medical scientists also work with customers or suppliers,
and manage budgets.
Those who conduct research usually work
in laboratories and use electron microscopes, computers,
thermal cyclers, or a wide variety of other equipment.
Some conduct experiments using laboratory animals or
greenhouse plants. This is particularly true of botanists,
physiologists, and zoologists. For some biological scientists,
a good deal of research is performed outside of laboratories.
For example, a botanist may do research in tropical
rain forests to see what plants grow there, or an ecologist
may study how a forest area recovers after a fire.
Some biological and medical scientists
work in managerial or administrative positions, usually
after spending some time doing research and learning
about the firm, agency, or project. They may plan and
administer programs for testing foods and drugs, for
example, or direct activities at zoos or botanical gardens.
Some work as consultants to business firms or to government,
while others test and inspect foods, drugs, and other
products.
In the 1980s, swift advances in basic
biological knowledge related to genetics and molecules
spurred growth in the field of biotechnology. Biological
and medical scientists using this technology manipulate
the genetic material of animals or plants, attempting
to make organisms more productive or resistant to disease.
Research using biotechnology techniques, such as recombining
DNA, has led to the discovery of important drugs, including
human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances
not previously available in large quantities are starting
to be produced by biotechnological means; some may be
useful in treating cancer and other diseases. Today,
many of these scientists are involved in biotechnology,
including those who work on the Human Genome project,
isolating, identifying, and sequencing human genes and
then determining their functionality. This work continues
to lead to the discovery of the genes associated with
specific diseases and inherited traits, such as certain
types of cancer or obesity. These advances in biotechnology
have opened up research opportunities in almost all
areas of biology, including commercial applications
in agriculture, environmental remediation, and the food
and chemical industries.
Most biological scientists who come
under the category of biologist are further classified
by the type of organism they study or by the specific
activity they perform, although recent advances in the
understanding of basic life processes at the molecular
and cellular levels have blurred some traditional classifications.
Aquatic biologists study plants and
animals living in water. Marine biologists study salt
water organisms, and limnologists study fresh water
organisms. Marine biologists are sometimes mistakenly
called oceanographers, but oceanography is the study
of the physical characteristics of oceans and the ocean
floor. (See the statement on environmental scientists
and geoscientists elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Biochemists study the chemical composition
of living things. They analyze the complex chemical
combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction,
growth, and heredity. Biochemists and molecular biologists
do most of their work in biotechnology, which involves
understanding the complex chemistry of life.
Botanists study plants and their environment.
Some study all aspects of plant life; others specialize
in areas such as identification and classification of
plants, the structure and function of plant parts, the
biochemistry of plant processes, the causes and cures
of plant diseases, and the geological record of plants.
Microbiologists investigate the growth
and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as
bacteria, algae, or fungi. Medical microbiologists study
the relationship between organisms and disease or the
effect of antibiotics on microorganisms. Other microbiologists
specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, or
industrial microbiology, virology (the study of viruses),
or immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections).
Many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance knowledge
of cell reproduction and human disease.
Physiologists study life functions of
plants and animals, both in the whole organism and at
the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal
conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions
such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration,
or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area
or system of the organism.
Biophysicists study the application
of principles of physics, such as electrical and mechanical
energy and related phenomena, to living cells and organisms.
Zoologists and wildlife biologists study
animals and wildlife-their origin, behavior, diseases,
and life processes. Some experiment with live animals
in controlled or natural surroundings while others dissect
dead animals to study their structure. They may also
collect and analyze biological data to determine the
environmental effects of current and potential use of
land and water areas. Zoologists usually are identified
by the animal group studied-ornithologists (birds),
mammalogists (mammals), herpetologists (reptiles), and
ichthyologists (fish).
Ecologists study the relationships among
organisms and between organisms and their environments
and the effects of influences such as population size,
pollutants, rainfall, temperature, and altitude. Utilizing
knowledge of various scientific disciplines, they may
collect, study, and report data on air, food, soil,
and water.
Soil scientists study soil characteristics,
map soil types, and investigate responses of soil to
determine its capabilities and productivity.
agricultural and food scientists, who
are sometimes referred to as biological scientists,
are included in a separate statement elsewhere in the
Handbook.
Biological scientists who do biomedical
research are usually called medical scientists. Medical
scientists work on basic research into normal biological
systems to understand the causes of and to discover
treatment for disease and other health problems. Medical
scientists try to identify changes in a cell, chromosome,
or even gene that signal the development of medical
problems, such as different types of cancer. After identifying
structures of or changes in organisms that provide clues
to health problems, medical scientists work on the treatment
of problems. For example, a medical scientist involved
in cancer research may formulate a combination of drugs
that will lessen the effects of the disease. Medical
scientists with a medical degree can administer these
drugs to patients in clinical trials, monitor their
reactions, and observe the results. (Medical scientists
without a medical degree normally collaborate with a
medical doctor who deals directly with patients.) The
medical scientist will return to the laboratory to examine
the results and, if necessary, adjust the dosage levels
to reduce negative side effects or to try to induce
even better results. In addition to using basic research
to develop treatments for health problems, medical scientists
attempt to discover ways to prevent health problems
from developing, such as affirming the link between
smoking and increased risk of lung cancer, or between
alcoholism and liver disease.
Working Conditions
Biological and medical scientists usually work regular
hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not
exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who
work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in
the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures
to avoid contamination. Medical scientists also spend
time working in clinics and hospitals administering
drugs and treatments to patients in clinical trials.
Many biological scientists such as botanists, ecologists,
and zoologists take field trips that involve strenuous
physical activity and primitive living conditions.
Some biological and medical scientists
depend on grant money to support their research. They
may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform
to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing
proposals to seek new or extended funding.
Employment
Biological and medical scientists held about 138,000
jobs in 2000; about half were biological scientists.
Four in ten biological scientists were employed by Federal,
State, and local governments. Federal biological scientists
worked mainly in the U.S. Departments of Agriculture,
the Interior, and Defense, and in the National Institutes
of Health. Most of the rest worked in the drug industry,
which includes pharmaceutical and biotechnology establishments,
hospitals, or research and testing laboratories. About
1 in 8 medical scientists worked in Government, with
most of the remainder found in research and testing
laboratories, educational institutions, the drug industry,
and hospitals.
In addition, many biological and medical
scientists held biology faculty positions in colleges
and universities. (See the statement on teachers-postsecondary
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Training, Other
Qualifications, and Advancement
For biological scientists, the Ph.D. degree
usually is necessary for independent research and for
advancement to administrative positions. A master's
degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research
or product development and for jobs in management, inspection,
sales, and service. The bachelor's degree is adequate
for some nonresearch jobs. For example, some graduates
with a bachelor's degree start as biological scientists
in testing and inspection, or get jobs related to biological
science, such as technical sales or service representatives.
In some cases, graduates with a bachelor's degree are
able to work in a laboratory environment on their own
projects, but this is unusual. Some may work as research
assistants. Others become biological technicians, medical
laboratory technologists or, with courses in education,
high school biology teachers. (See the statements on
clinical laboratory technologists and technicians; science
technicians; and teachers-preschool, kindergarten, elementary,
middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many
with a bachelor's degree in biology enter medical, dental,
veterinary, or other health profession schools.
In addition to required courses in chemistry
and biology, undergraduate biological science majors
usually study allied disciplines such as mathematics,
physics, and computer science. Computer courses are
essential, as employers increasingly prefer job applicants
who are able to apply computer skills to modeling and
simulation tasks and to operate computerized laboratory
equipment. Those interested in studying the environment
also should take courses in environmental studies and
become familiar with current legislation and regulations.
Most colleges and universities offer
bachelor's degrees in biological science and many offer
advanced degrees. Curriculums for advanced degrees often
emphasize a subfield such as microbiology or botany,
but not all universities offer all curriculums. Advanced
degree programs include classroom and fieldwork, laboratory
research, and a thesis or dissertation. Biological scientists
who have advanced degrees often take temporary postdoctoral
research positions that provide specialized research
experience. In private industry, some may become managers
or administrators within the field of biology; others
leave biology for nontechnical managerial, administrative,
or sales jobs.
Biological scientists should be able
to work independently or as part of a team and be able
to communicate clearly and concisely, both orally and
in writing. Those in private industry, especially those
who aspire to management or administrative positions,
should possess strong business and communication skills
and be familiar with regulatory issues and marketing
and management techniques. Those doing field research
in remote areas must have physical stamina.
The Ph.D. degree in a biological science
is the minimum education required for prospective medical
scientists because the work of medical scientists is
almost entirely research oriented. A Ph.D. degree qualifies
one to do research on basic life processes or on particular
medical problems or diseases, and to analyze and interpret
the results of experiments on patients. Medical scientists
who administer drug or gene therapy to human patients,
or who otherwise interact medically with patients-such
as drawing blood, excising tissue, or performing other
invasive procedures-must have a medical degree. It is
particularly helpful for medical scientists to earn
both Ph.D. and medical degrees.
In addition to formal education, medical
scientists usually spend several years in a postdoctoral
position before they apply for permanent jobs. Postdoctoral
work provides valuable laboratory experience, including
experience in specific processes and techniques, such
as gene splicing, which are transferable to other research
projects. In some institutions, the postdoctoral position
can lead to a permanent position.
Job Outlook
Despite prospects of
faster-than-average job growth for biological and medical
scientists over the 2000-10 period, doctoral degree
holders can expect to face considerable competition
for basic research positions. The Federal Government
funds much basic research and development, including
many areas of medical research. Recent budget tightening
has led to smaller increases in Federal basic research
and development expenditures, further limiting the dollar
amount of each grant, although the number of grants
awarded to researchers remains fairly constant. At the
same time, the number of newly trained scientists has
continued to increase at a steady rate, so both new
and established scientists have experienced greater
difficulty winning and renewing research grants. If
the number of advanced degrees awarded continues to
grow unabated, this competitive scenario is likely to
persist. Additionally, applied research positions in
private industry may become more difficult to obtain
if more scientists seek jobs in private industry than
have done so in the past due to the competitive job
market for college and university faculty.
Opportunities for those with a bachelor's
or master's degree in biological science are expected
to be better. The number of science-related jobs in
sales, marketing, and research management, for which
non-Ph.D.s usually qualify, are expected to be more
plentiful than independent research positions. Non-Ph.D.s
also may fill positions as science or engineering technicians
or health technologists and technicians. Some become
high school biology teachers, while those with a doctorate
in biological science may become college and university
faculty.
Biological and medical scientists enjoyed
very rapid gains in employment between the mid-1980s
and mid-1990s, in part reflecting increased staffing
requirements in new biotechnology companies. Employment
growth should slow somewhat as increases in the number
of new biotechnology firms slow and existing firms merge
or are absorbed into larger ones. However, much of the
basic biological research done in recent years has resulted
in new knowledge, including the isolation and identification
of new genes. Biological and medical scientists will
be needed to take this knowledge to the next stage,
which is the understanding of how certain genes function
within an entire organism, so that gene therapies can
be developed to treat diseases. Even pharmaceutical
and other firms not solely engaged in biotechnology
are expected to increasingly use biotechnology techniques,
spurring employment increases for biological and medical
scientists. In addition, efforts to discover new and
improved ways to clean up and preserve the environment
will continue to add to growth. More biological scientists
will be needed to determine the environmental impact
of industry and government actions and to prevent or
correct environmental problems. Expected expansion in
research related to health issues such as AIDS, cancer,
and Alzheimer's disease also should result in employment
growth.
Biological and medical scientists are
less likely to lose their jobs during recessions than
are those in many other occupations because many are
employed on long-term research projects. However, a
recession could further influence the amount of money
allocated to new research and development efforts, particularly
in areas of risky or innovative research. A recession
could also limit the possibility of extension or renewal
of existing projects.
Earnings
Median annual earnings of biological
scientists were $49,239 in 2000. Median annual earnings
of medical scientists were $57,196 in 2000, with epidemiologists
earning $48,390 and medical scientists, except epidemiologists,
earning $57,810. Median annual earnings of medical scientists
were $54,260 in research and testing laboratories and
$41,010 in hospitals in 1999.
According to the National Association
of Colleges and Employers, beginning salary offers in
2000 averaged $29,235 a year for bachelor's degree recipients
in biological science, $35,667 for master's degree recipients,
and $42,744 for doctoral degree recipients.
In the Federal Government in 2001, general
biological scientists in nonsupervisory, supervisory,
and managerial positions earned an average salary of
$61,236; microbiologists, $67,835; ecologists, $61,936;
physiologists, $78,366; and geneticists, $72,510.
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