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Psychology
Significant Points
More than 4 out of
10 psychologists are self-employed, about 6 times the
average for professional workers.
A doctoral degree usually is required for employment
as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist.
Opportunities for employment in psychology for those
with only a bachelor's degree are extremely limited.
Nature of the Work
Psychologists study the human mind and
human behavior. Research psychologists investigate the
physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of
human behavior. Psychologists in applied fields provide
mental health care in hospitals, clinics, schools, or
private settings.
Like other social scientists, psychologists
formulate hypotheses and collect data to test their
validity. Research methods vary depending on the topic
under study. Psychologists sometimes gather information
through controlled laboratory experiments or by administering
personality, performance, aptitude, and intelligence
tests. Other methods include observation, interviews,
questionnaires, clinical studies, and surveys.
Psychologists apply their knowledge
to a wide range of endeavors, including health and human
services, management, education, law, and sports. In
addition to a variety of work settings, psychologists
usually specialize in one of a number of different areas.
Clinical psychologists—who constitute
the largest specialty—usually work in counseling
centers, independent or group practices, hospitals,
or clinics. They help mentally and emotionally disturbed
clients adjust to life and may help medical and surgical
patients deal with illnesses or injuries. Some work
in physical rehabilitation settings, treating patients
with spinal cord injuries, chronic pain or illness,
stroke, arthritis, and neurologic conditions. Others
help people deal with times of personal crisis, such
as divorce or the death of a loved one.
Clinical psychologists often interview
patients and give diagnostic tests. They may provide
individual, family, or group psychotherapy, and design
and implement behavior modification programs. Some clinical
psychologists collaborate with physicians and other
specialists to develop and implement treatment and intervention
programs that patients can understand and comply with.
Other clinical psychologists work in universities and
medical schools, where they train graduate students
in the delivery of mental health and behavioral medicine
services. Some administer community mental health programs.
Areas of specialization within clinical
psychology include health psychology, neuropsychology,
and geropsychology. Health psychologists promote good
health through health maintenance counseling programs
designed to help people achieve goals such as to stop
smoking or lose weight. Neuropsychologists study the
relation between the brain and behavior. They often
work in stroke and head injury programs. Geropsychologists
deal with the special problems faced by the elderly.
The emergence and growth of these specialties reflects
the increasing participation of psychologists in providing
direct services to special patient populations.
Counseling psychologists use various
techniques, including interviewing and testing, to advise
people on how to deal with problems of everyday living.
They work in settings such as university counseling
centers, hospitals, and individual or group practices.
(Also see the statements on counselors and social workers
elsewhere in the Handbook.)
School psychologists work in elementary
and secondary schools or school district offices to
resolve students' learning and behavior problems. They
collaborate with teachers, parents, and school personnel
to improve classroom management strategies or parenting
skills, counter substance abuse, work with students
with disabilities or gifted and talented students, and
improve teaching and learning strategies. They may evaluate
the effectiveness of academic programs, behavior management
procedures, and other services provided in the school
setting.
Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists
apply psychological principles and research methods
to the workplace in the interest of improving productivity
and the quality of worklife. They also are involved
in research on management and marketing problems. They
conduct applicant screening, training and development,
counseling, and organizational development and analysis.
An industrial psychologist might work with management
to reorganize the work setting to improve productivity
or quality of life in the workplace. They frequently
act as consultants, brought in by management in order
to solve a particular problem.
Developmental psychologists study the
physiological, cognitive, and social development that
takes place throughout life. Some specialize in behavior
during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, or changes
that occur during maturity or old age. They also may
study developmental disabilities and their effects.
Increasingly, research is developing ways to help elderly
people stay as independent as possible.
Social psychologists examine people's
interactions with others and with the social environment.
They work in organizational consultation, marketing
research, systems design, or other applied psychology
fields. Prominent areas of study include group behavior,
leadership, attitudes, and perception.
Experimental or research psychologists
work in university and private research centers and
in business, nonprofit, and governmental organizations.
They study behavior processes with human beings and
animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons. Prominent
areas of study in experimental research include motivation,
thinking, attention, learning and memory, sensory and
perceptual processes, effects of substance abuse, and
genetic and neurological factors affecting behavior.
Working Conditions
A psychologist's specialty and place of employment determine
working conditions. Clinical, school, and counseling
psychologists in private practice have their own offices
and set their own hours. However, they often offer evening
and weekend hours to accommodate their clients. Those
employed in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health
facilities may work shifts including evenings and weekends,
while those who work in schools and clinics generally
work regular hours.
Psychologists employed as faculty by
colleges and universities divide their time between
teaching and research and also may have administrative
responsibilities. Many have part-time consulting practices.
Most psychologists in government and industry have structured
schedules.
Increasingly, many work as part of a
team and consult with other psychologists and professionals.
Many psychologists experience pressures due to deadlines,
tight schedules, and overtime work. Their routine may
be interrupted frequently. Travel usually is required
to attend conferences or conduct research.
Employment
Psychologists held about 182,000 jobs in 2000. Educational
institutions employed about 4 out of 10 salaried psychologists
in positions other than teaching, such as counseling,
testing, research, and administration. Three out of
10 were employed in health services, primarily in hospitals,
mental health clinics, rehabilitation centers, nursing
homes, and other health facilities. Government agencies
at the Federal, State, and local levels employed more
than 1 in 10 in hospitals, clinics, correctional facilities,
and other settings. The U.S. Departments of Veterans
Affairs and of Defense employ a majority of the psychologists
working for Federal agencies. Some psychologists work
in social service organizations, research organizations,
management consulting firms, marketing research firms,
and other businesses.
After several years of experience, some
psychologists—usually those with doctoral degrees—enter
private practice or set up private research or consulting
firms. More than 4 out of 10 psychologists were self-employed.
In addition to the jobs described above,
many psychologists held faculty positions at colleges
and universities, and as high school psychology teachers.
(See the statements on teachers—postsecondary
and teachers—preschool, kindergarten, elementary,
middle, and secondary elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Training, Other Qualifications,
and Advancement
A doctoral degree is usually required for employment
as a licensed clinical or counseling psychologist. Psychologists
with a Ph.D. qualify for a wide range of teaching, research,
clinical, and counseling positions in universities,
healthcare services, elementary and secondary schools,
private industry, and government. Psychologists with
a Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree usually work
in clinical positions or in private practices. An Educational
Specialist (Ed.S.) degree will qualify an individual
to work as a school psychologist. Persons with a master's
degree in psychology may work as industrial-organizational
psychologists. They also may work as psychological assistants,
under the supervision of doctoral-level psychologists,
and conduct research or psychological evaluations. A
bachelor's degree in psychology qualifies a person to
assist psychologists and other professionals in community
mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation offices,
and correctional programs. They may work as research
or administrative assistants or become sales or management
trainees in business. Some work as technicians in related
fields such as marketing research.
Clinical psychologists usually must
have completed the Ph.D. or Psy.D. requirements and
served an internship. Vocational and guidance counselors
usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling
and 1 year of counseling experience. School psychology
requires a master's degree followed by a 1-year internship.
In the Federal Government, candidates
having at least 24 semester hours in psychology and
one course in statistics qualify for entry-level positions.
However, competition for these jobs is keen because
this is one of the few areas in which one can work as
a psychologist without an advanced degree.
A doctoral degree usually requires 5
to 7 years of graduate study. The Ph.D. degree culminates
in a dissertation based on original research. Courses
in quantitative research methods, which include the
use of computer-based analysis, are an integral part
of graduate study and are necessary to complete the
dissertation. The Psy.D. may be based on practical work
and examinations rather than a dissertation. In clinical
or counseling psychology, the requirements for the doctoral
degree usually include at least a 1-year internship.
A master's degree in psychology requires
at least 2 years of full-time graduate study. Requirements
usually include practical experience in an applied setting
and a master's thesis based on an original research
project. Competition for admission into graduate programs
is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate
major in psychology. Others prefer only course work
in basic psychology with courses in the biological,
physical, and social sciences; and statistics and mathematics.
Psychologists in independent practice
or those who offer any type of patient care(including
clinical, counseling, and school psychologists(must
meet certification or licensing requirements in all
States and the District of Columbia. Licensing laws
vary by State and by type of position and require licensed
or certified psychologists to limit their practice to
areas in which they have developed professional competence
through training and experience. Clinical and counseling
psychologists usually require a doctorate in psychology,
completion of an approved internship, and 1 to 2 years
of professional experience. In addition, all States
require that applicants pass an examination. Most State
boards administer a standardized test and many supplement
that with additional oral or essay questions. Most States
certify those with a master's degree as school psychologists
after completion of an internship. Some States require
continuing education for license renewal.
The American Psychological Association
(APA) presently accredits doctoral training programs
in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. The
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education,
with the assistance of the National Association of School
Psychologists, also is involved in the accreditation
of advanced degree programs in school psychology. The
APA also accredits institutions that provide internships
for doctoral students in school, clinical, and counseling
psychology.
The American Board of Professional Psychology
(ABPP) recognizes professional achievement by awarding
certification, primarily in clinical psychology, clinical
neuropsychology, counseling, forensic, industrial-organizational,
and school psychology. Candidates for ABPP certification
need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years of experience,
professional endorsements, and a passing grade on an
examination.
Aspiring psychologists who are interested
in direct patient care must be emotionally stable, mature,
and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity,
compassion, and the ability to lead and inspire others
are particularly important qualities for clinical work
and counseling. Research psychologists should be able
to do detailed work independently and as part of a team.
Excellent communications skills are necessary to succeed
in research. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities
because results from psychological treatment of patients
or from research usually take a long time.
Job Outlook
Employment of psychologists is expected to grow about
as fast as the average for all occupations through 2010.
Employment in healthcare will grow fastest in outpatient
mental health and substance abuse treatment clinics.
Numerous job opportunities will also arise in schools,
public and private social service agencies, and management
consulting services. Companies will use psychologists'
expertise in survey design, analysis, and research to
provide marketing evaluation and statistical analysis.
The increase in employee assistance programs, which
offer employees help with personal problems, also should
spur job growth.
Opportunities for people holding doctorates
from leading universities in areas with an applied emphasis,
such as counseling, health, and educational psychology,
should be good. Psychologists with extensive training
in quantitative research methods and computer science
may have a competitive edge over applicants without
this background.
Graduates with a master's degree in
psychology qualify for positions in school and industrial-organizational
psychology. Graduates of master's degree programs in
school psychology should have the best job prospects,
as schools are expected to increase student counseling
and mental health services. Masters' degree holders
with several years of business and industry experience
can obtain jobs in consulting and marketing research.
Other master's degree holders may find jobs as psychological
assistants or counselors providing mental health services
under the direct supervision of a licensed psychologist.
Still others may find jobs involving research and data
collection and analysis in universities, government,
or private companies. Very few opportunities directly
related to psychology will exist for bachelor's degree
holders. Some may find jobs as assistants in rehabilitation
centers, or in other jobs involving data collection
and analysis. Those who meet State certification requirements
may become high school psychology teachers.
Earnings
Median annual earnings of salaried psychologists were
$48,596 in 2000. Median annual earnings were $48,320
for clinical, counseling, and school psychologists and
$66,880 for industrial-organizational psychologists.
Median annual earnings in the industries employing the
largest numbers of psychologists in 2000 were as follows:
Hospitals $52,460
Elementary and secondary schools $51,310
Offices of other health practitioners $50,990
Offices and clinics of medical doctors $47,890
Individual and family services $35,720
The Federal Government recognizes education
and experience in certifying applicants for entry-level
positions. In general, the starting salary for psychologists
having a bachelor's degree was about $21,900 in 2001;
those with superior academic records could begin at
$27,200. Psychologists with a master's degree and 1
year of experience could start at $33,300. Psychologists
having a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship
could start at $40,200, and some individuals with experience
could start at $48,200. Beginning salaries were slightly
higher in selected areas of the country where the prevailing
local pay level was higher. The average annual salary
for psychologists in the Federal Government was $72,830
in 2001.
Related Occupations
Psychologists are trained to conduct
research and teach, evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals
and groups with special needs. Others who do this kind
of work include clergy, counselors, physicians and surgeons,
social workers, sociologists, and special education
teachers.
Sources of Additional Information
Disclaimer:Links to non-BLS Internet
sites are provided for your convenience and do not constitute
an endorsement.
For information on careers, educational requirements,
financial assistance, and licensing in all fields of
psychology, contact:
American Psychological Association,
Research Office and Education in Psychology and Accreditation
Offices, 750 1st St. NE., Washington, DC 20002.
Internet: http://www.apa.org
For information on careers, educational requirements,
certification, and licensing of school psychologists,
contact:
National Association of School Psychologists,
4030 East West Hwy., uite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814.
Internet: http://www.nasponline.org
Information about State licensing requirements is available
from:
Association of State and Provincial
Psychology Boards, P.O. Box 241245, Montgomery, AL 36124-1245.
Internet: http://www.asppb.org
Information on obtaining a position as a psychologist
with the Federal Government is available from the Office
of Personnel Management through a telephone-based system.
Consult your telephone directory under U.S. Government
for a local number or call (912) 757-3000; Federal Relay
Service: (800) 877-8339. The first number is not tollfree,
and charges may result. Information also is available
from the Internet site: http://www.usajobs.opm.gov.
Selected industries employing psychologists
that appear in the 2002-03 Career Guide to Industries:
Educational services
Health services
Social services, except child care
State and local government, except education and health
OOH ONET Codes
19-3031.01, 19-3031.02, 19-3031.03,
19-3032.00
Suggested citation: Bureau of Labor
Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook
Handbook, 2002-03 Edition, Psychologists, on the Internet
at http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm
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